History of Fingerprints in forensic science

History of Fingerprints

Fingerprints have played a significant role in human identification for thousands of years. The study of fingerprints, known as dactyloscopy, has evolved from ancient practices to modern biometric systems used worldwide in forensic science and identification.

Oldest Discovery

• Earthenware estimated to be 6000 years old was discovered at an archaeological site in northwest China and found to bear clearly discernible friction ridge impressions. However, it is unknown whether they were deposited by accident or with specific intent, such as to create decorative patterns or symbols.

• Babylon (1000 BC): Clay tablets used for contracts were signed with fingerprints, indicating an early use of fingerprints for authentication.

Ancient History

221–206 B.C. (Qin Dynasty, China)

• The document titled “The Volume of Crime Scene Investigation—Burglary” from the Qin Dynasty contains a description of how handprints were used as evidence.

• Documents consisting of bamboo slips or pages were rolled with string bindings, and the strings were sealed with clay. On one side of the seal, the name of the author was impressed, usually in writing, and on the other side the fingerprint of the author was impressed.

• The use of friction ridge skin impressions in China continued into the Tang Dynasty (A.D. 617–907). Evidence of their use appears on land contracts, wills, and army rosters.

• In Japan, a Domestic Law enacted in A.D. 702 required that:
  “In case a husband cannot write, let him hire another man to write the document and after the husband’s name, sign with his own index finger.”

Early Developments (17th – 18th Century)

Dr. Nehemiah Grew (1684)

Friction ridge skin was first described in detail by Dr. Nehemiah Grew in his 1684 paper published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.

Govard Bidloo (1685)

• A Dutch anatomist who published “Anatomy of the Human Body.”

• His work included details of the skin and papillary ridges of the thumb, but it did not address individualization or permanence.

Marcello Malpighi

• In 1687, the Italian physiologist Marcello Malpighi published “Concerning the External Tactile Organs.”

• In this work, the function, form, and structure of friction ridge skin were discussed.

Malpighi observed that ridged skin increases friction between objects and the skin’s surface, enhancing traction for walking and grasping.

J. C. A. Mayer (Around 1788)

• A German doctor and anatomist, Mayer wrote a book titled “Anatomical Copper-plates with Appropriate Explanations.”

• The book contained detailed drawings of friction ridge skin patterns.

Mayer wrote:

“Although the arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless the similarities are closer among some individuals. In others the differences are marked, yet in spite of their peculiarities of arrangement all have a certain likeness.”

Developments in the 19th Century

Dr. Johannes E. Purkinje (1787–1869)

• Professor at the University of Breslau in Germany.

• In 1823, he wrote a thesis titled “Commentary on the Physiological Examination of the Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous System.”

In this thesis, Purkinje classified fingerprint patterns into nine categories and gave each pattern a name. His work later became the precursor to the Henry Classification System.

Nine Classifications of Fingerprints by Purkinje

1. Transverse Curves – Ridges run horizontally across the finger.

2. Oblique Curves – Ridges run diagonally across the finger.

3. Elliptical or Oval Whorls – Ridges form oval-shaped whorls.

4. Almond Whorls – Ridges resemble the shape of an almond.

5. Double Whorls – Two distinct whorl patterns appear on the same fingerprint.

6. Anomalous Whorls – Irregular or unusual whorl patterns.

7. Concentric Whorls – Ridges form concentric circles.

8. Composite Whorls – A combination of different patterns in one fingerprint.

Hermann Welcker (1822–1898)

The German anthropologist Hermann Welcker of the University of Halle conducted significant studies demonstrating the permanence of friction ridge skin.

Sir William Herschel

• Born in England, Herschel moved in 1853 to Bengal, India, where he served as a British Administrator for the East India Company.

• After becoming Magistrate and Collector at Hooghly near Calcutta in 1877, Herschel implemented the recording of friction ridge skin for identification purposes on a large scale.

• Herschel continued studying the permanence of fingerprints throughout his life and published prints taken from 1859, 1877, and 1916 to demonstrate their permanence.

Henry Faulds

• On February 16, 1880, Faulds wrote a letter to Charles Darwin explaining that friction ridges were unique, classifiable, and permanent.

• In October 1880, Faulds published an article in the journal Nature describing his findings.

• In this article, he proposed the use of fingerprints for criminal identification at crime scenes and provided two practical examples.

Faulds was the first person to publish the value of friction ridge skin for individualization in a scientific journal.

Gilbert Thompson

In 1882, American geologist Gilbert Thompson protected his checks from forgery by signing across his fingerprint impression while working on a project in New Mexico.

Mark Twain

In 1883, Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known as Mark Twain, wrote in his book “Life on the Mississippi” about the permanence and uniqueness of thumbprints.

Dr. Arthur Kollmann (1883)

Dr. Arthur Kollmann of Hamburg was the first to identify the presence and location of volar pads on the hands and feet.

Sir Francis Galton

• Born February 16, 1822, in Sparkbrook, England.

• Cousin of Charles Darwin.

Galton authored the first book dedicated to fingerprints, titled “Finger Prints” (1892).

His contributions include:

• Demonstrating the uniqueness and permanence of friction ridge skin.

• Identifying and naming fingerprint minutiae, now known as Galton Details.

René Forgeot

The French medical–legal scientist René Forgeot published a thesis in 1891 proposing the use of powders and chemicals to develop latent fingerprints at crime scenes.

The Rojas Murder Case (1892)

The Rojas murder case in Argentina is considered the first homicide solved using fingerprint evidence.

Argentina became the first country to rely solely on fingerprints for individual identification.

Sir Edward Richard Henry

Sir Edward Henry served as Inspector General of Police for the Lower Provinces in Bengal.

• He collaborated with Francis Galton to develop a method for fingerprint classification.

• With assistance from Indian police officers Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose, the Henry Classification System was created.

1897 – World's First Fingerprint Bureau

The world’s first fingerprint bureau was established at Writer’s Building, Calcutta, making India the birthplace of organized fingerprinting.

Developments in the 20th Century

1900 – Belper Committee Recommendation

In December 1900, the Belper Committee in England, chaired by Lord Belper, recommended that criminal identification records be classified using the fingerprint system.

Following this recommendation, the Henry Classification System became standard practice in England and later spread to many English-speaking countries.

Bertillon Case (1902)

On October 17, 1902, Alphonse Bertillon assisted in solving the murder of Joseph Reibel.

This case is considered the first murder in Europe solved using only fingerprint evidence.

The William and Will West Story (1903)

The William and Will West case demonstrated the limitations of anthropometry.

• In 1903, a man named Will West was arrested and taken to Leavenworth Prison in Kansas.

• Prison records showed another inmate named William West with almost identical anthropometric measurements.

• Anthropometry failed to distinguish them.

Fingerprints were then used and successfully proved that the two men were different individuals, strengthening the importance of fingerprint identification.

1908 – First Fingerprint Card

In 1908, the first official fingerprint card was created for systematic record keeping.

Modern Developments

1924 – FBI Fingerprint System

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) established a national fingerprint identification system for criminal records.

1955 – Central Finger Print Bureau (India)

The Central Finger Print Bureau (CFPB) was established in Calcutta under the Intelligence Bureau.

• Transferred to the CBI in 1973

• Placed under the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) in 1986

1980s–1990s – AFIS in India

India developed its own Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) known as FACTS, co-developed by NCRB and CMC Ltd.

2020 – UIDAI Biometric System

The Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) now operates the world’s largest fingerprint database, used for biometric identification across the country.

History of Fingerprints